Antibiotic summary table (2023)

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Drug Name List, Coverage, Mechanism of Action, Mnemonic, Examples Made Easy — EZmed

Pharmacology

Jan 9

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By definition, antibiotics are medications used to fight bacterial infections.

Common uses include urinary tract infections (UTIs), strep throat (pharyngitis), pneumonia, ear infections (otitis media), some sinus infections (sinusitis), and much more.

There are many different classes of antibiotics including penicillins,cephalosporins, tetracyclines, macrolides, fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides, sulfonamides, carbapenems, lincosamides, and glycopeptides.

In this post, we will use the below chart and mnemonic to discuss the different antibiotic classes along with their gram coverage, mechanism of action (how they work), drug names, and example uses.

We will continue to make antibiotic pharmacology easy with 3 simple tricks to help you remember the drug names, gram coverage, and mechanism of action of each class!

Let’s get started!

Don’t Miss Out!

For a simple trick to remember the medications names in each antibiotic class, click the EZmed link below!

Antibiotic Classes and Drug Names: The Pharmacology Trick

Image: Use the above mnemonic and chart to remember the main antibiotic classes along with their drug names, coverage, mechanism of action, and uses.

There are 10 main classes of antibiotics that we will discuss in this post.

They include aminoglycosides,cephalosporins, tetracyclines, penicillins, sulfonamides, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, carbapenems, lincosamides, and glycopeptides.

You can use the following EZmed mnemonic to remember these main classes:

“Antibiotics Can Terminate Protein Synthesis For Microbial Cells Like Germs”.

This mnemonic is useful because it not only helps you remember the main antibiotic classes, but it also reminds you that inhibition of protein synthesis is the mechanism of action for many antibiotics (more on this later).

Image: Use the above mnemonic to remember the 10 main antibiotic classes.

Antibiotics =Aminoglycosides

Can =Cephalosporins

Terminate =Tetracyclines

Protein =Penicillins

Synthesis =Sulfonamides

For =Fluoroquinolones

Microbial =Macrolides

Cells =Carbapenems

Like =Lincosamides

Gwasteland =Glycopeptides

We’re now going to walk through the mnemonic and discuss the drug names, coverage, mechanism of action, and example indications for each class.

You can use the table below as a reference!

Image: From left to right column: Mnemonic, Antibiotic Class, Example Drug Names, Gram Coverage, Mechanism of Action, Example Uses

Aminoglycosides

Drug Names: Examples of aminoglycosides include streptomycin and gentamicin. These drug names typically end in “mycin/micin”.

Gram Coverage: Aminoglycosides primarily cover aerobic gram-negative bacteria and do not cover anaerobes. While they are particularly active against gram-negatives, they can act synergistically against certain gram-positive organisms.

Mechanism of Action: Aminoglycosides inhibit protein synthesis.

Ribosomes function to synthesize proteins in cells, and bacterial ribosomes are made up of a 30s and 50s subunit.

Aminoglycosides bind to the 30s ribosomal subunit of bacteria thereby disrupting protein synthesis (human ribosomes have a 40s and 60s subunit and are not affected by the antibiotic as a result).

Example Indications: Aminoglycosides are highly potent, broad-spectrum antibiotics and can be used for bacteremia,intra-abdominal infections, and other life-threatening infections that may progress toshock if untreated.

Cephalosporins

Drug Names: Examples ofcephalosporinsinclude ceftriaxone and cefepime. These drug names typically begin with “cef/ceph”.

Gram Coverage: Cephalosporins cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Mechanism of Action: Cephalosporins inhibit cell wall synthesis.

Peptidoglycan is a major component of bacterial cell walls and is necessary to maintain the cell wall integrity.

Peptidoglycan synthesis is facilitated by penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs).

Cephalosporins (along with penicillins and carbapenems) contain a beta-lactam ring in their structure and are classified as beta-lactam antibiotics as a result.

Beta-lactam antibiotics bind to, and inhibit, PBPs thereby preventing peptidoglycan synthesis and cross-linking. As a result, the bacterial cell wall is disrupted.

Example Indications: Cephalosporins can be used for skin, urinary, and respiratory infections among others.

There are 5 generations of cephalosporin medications based on their spectrum of coverage.

For a simple trick to remember which medications are in each generation, check out the following EZmed post! “Cephalosporin Generations Made Easy”

For the simple “arrow trick” to remember the coverage of each cephalosporin generation check out the following EZmed post! “Cephalosporin Coverage Made Easy”

Tetracyclines

Drug Names: Examples of tetracyclines include tetracycline and doxycycline. These drug names usually end in “cycline”.

Gram Coverage: Tetracyclines cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Mechanism of Action: Tetracyclines are similar to aminoglycosides in that they inhibit protein synthesis, specifically by binding to the 30s subunit of the bacterial ribosome.

Example Indications: Tetracyclines can be used for Lyme disease, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), and some sexually transmitted infections (STIs) among others.

Penicillins

Drug Names: Examples of penicillins include ampicillin and amoxicillin. These drug names typically end in “cillin”.

Gram Coverage: Penicillins cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, especially the later generation penicillins.

Mechanism of Action: Penicillins are beta-lactam antibiotics, and therefore they inhibit cell wall synthesis similar to cephalosporins.

Example Indications: Penicillins can be used for various ear, nose, throat (ENT), skin, and urinary infections among others.

Later generations can also be used for intra-abdominal infections such asgallbladder/biliary infections among others.

Sulfonamides

Drug Names: Examples of sulfonamides include sulfasalazine (can be used as an anti-inflammatory) and sulfamethoxazole. These drug names typically begin with “sulfa”.

Gram Coverage: Sulfonamides cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Mechanism of Action: Sulfonamides inhibit folate synthesis.

Bacteria have the unique ability to generate their own folate, whereas humans must obtain folate from their diet.

Therefore, sulfonamides act on this unique bacterial function by inhibiting folate synthesis.

Example Indications: Sulfonamides can be used forburns, eye infections, and urinary tract infections (UTIs) among others.

Fluoroquinolones

Drug Names: Examples of fluoroquinolones include ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin. These drug names typically end in “floxacin”.

Gram Coverage: Fluoroquinolones cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Mechanism of Action: Fluoroquinolones inhibit DNA synthesis and replication.

They inhibit enzymes such as DNA gyrase and topoisomerase, and DNA is unable to unwind and/or replicate as a result.

Example Indications: Fluoroquinolones can be used for respiratory and urinary infections among others.

Macrolides

Drug Names: Examples of macrolides include azithromycin and erythromycin. These drug names typically end in “thromycin”.

Gram Coverage: Macrolides cover primarily gram-positive bacteria, with some gram-negative coverage.

Mechanism of Action: Macrolides inhibit protein synthesis.

However, rather than binding to the 30s subunit of bacterial ribosomes (like we saw with aminoglycosides and tetracyclines), macrolides bind to the 50s subunit.

Example Indications: Macrolides can be used for pneumonia, sinusitis, ENT infections, and STIs among others.

Carbapenems

Drug Names: Examples of carbapenems include meropenem and ertapenem. These drug names typically end in “penem”.

Gram Coverage: Carbapenems cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Mechanism of Action: Carbapenems inhibit cell wall synthesis similar to cephalosporins and penicillins as they are also beta-lactam antibiotics.

Example Indications: Carbapenems are broad-spectrum antibiotics and can be used for urinary and abdominal infections among others.

Appendicitis, especially if complicated (perforated, abscess, etc), is one example in which carbapenems could be used.

Lincosamides

Drug Names: Examples of lincosamides include clindamycin, lincomycin, and pirlimycin. Some of these drug names, but not all, end in “mycin”.

Gram Coverage: Lincosamides primarily cover gram-positive bacteria as they are unable to pass through the outer membrane of gram-negative organisms.

Mechanism of Action: Lincosamides inhibit protein synthesis, specifically by targeting the 50s subunit of the bacterial ribosome as we saw with macrolides.

Example Indications: Lincosamides can be used for skin, bone, and lung infections among others.

Glycopeptides

Drug Names: Vancomycin is an example of a glycopeptide. Most of these drug names end in “in” with some ending in “mycin”.

Gram Coverage: Glycopeptides primarily cover gram-positive bacteria as they are large and cannot pass through the porin channels found in the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria.

Mechanism of Action: Glycopeptides inhibit cell wall synthesis.

Example Indications: Glycopeptides can be used for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), skin infections, and endocarditis among others.

Now that we have discussed the main antibiotic classes, let’s learn some tricks to remember the information!

The first trick will help you remember the drug names within each antibiotic class as most of the medications share similarprefixesand/orsuffixes.

**While this trick applies to most drug names within each class there may be a few exceptions.

Aminoglycosides= end in “mycin”

Cephalosporins= begin with “cef/ceph”

Tetracyclines= end in “cycline”

Penicillins= end in “cillin”

Sulfonamides= begin with “sulfa”

Fluoroquinolones= end in “floxacin”

Macrolides= end in “thromycin”

Carbapenems= end in “almost”

Lincosamides= end in “mycin”

Glycopeptides= end in “in/mycin”

Aminoglycosides, lincosamides, and glycopeptides can all end in “mycin” so be careful with those.

Image: Use the above trick to remember the drug names in each antibiotic class.

The next trick is to help you remember the gram coverage for each antibiotic class.

Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Coverage

All but 4 of the antibiotic classes cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Therefore, if you remember those 4 classes, then you will know the others will cover both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms.

Below are some tricks to remember what those classes are.

Specific Coverage Classes

The 4 classes that have specific gram coverage include glycopeptides, lincosamides, aminoglycosides, and macrolides.

There are a couples ways to remember these 4 classes.

First, you can use the acronym“GLAM”to rememberGlycopeptides,Lincosamides,Aminoglycosides, andMacrolides.

Second, these 4 antibiotic classes end in“ide”, so you can use the classsuffix to remember they have specific gram coverage.

***If you use this second method be careful with sulfonamides, as this class name also has the suffix “ides”, but they cover both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

If this confuses you, then simply use the acronym GLAM instead.

Gram-Negative Coverage Only

Aminoglycosides primarily cover gram-negative bacteria (with some minor exceptions against gram-positives, especially when used synergistically).

The word amiNOglycoside has the word“NO”in it. No is a negative response which will help you remember gram-negative.

Gram-Positive Coverage Only

The other 3 classes (glycopeptides, lincosamides, and macrolides) primarily cover gram-positive bacteria only (with macrolides having minor gram-negative coverage as well).

Remember lincosamides and glycopeptides have difficulty passing through the outer membrane of gram-negative organisms.

AmiNOglycosides = Gram (-) = “NO”

Cephalosporins = Gram (+)/(-)

Tetracyclines = Gram (+)/(-)

Penicillins = Gram (+)/(-)

Sulfonamides = Gram (+)/(-)

Fluoroquinolones = Gram (+)/(-)

Macrolides = Gram (+)

Carbapenems = Gram (+)/(-)

Lincosamides = Gram (+)

Glycopeptides = Gram (+)

Image: You can use the acronym“GLAM”to rememberGlycopeptides,Lincosamides,Aminoglycosides, andMacrolides have specific gram coverage (with minor exceptions discussed above).

Lastly, there is a trick to remember the mechanism of action of each class.

There are 4 main mechanisms of action:

1. Inhibition of folate synthesis

2. Inhibition of DNA replication/synthesis

3. Inhibition of protein synthesis

4. Inhibition of cell wall synthesis

Inhibit Folate Synthesis

Sulfonamides are the main class to inhibit folate synthesis.

This can be remembered because both sulFOnamide andFOlate contain“FO”.

Inhibit DNA Replication

Fluoroquinolones are the main class to inhibit DNA replication/synthesis.

Think of quintuplets as having identical copies of DNA (DNA replication).

Use the“QUIN”in fluoroQUINolones andQUINtuplets to help you remember DNA replication inhibition.

Inhibit Protein Synthesis

Macrolides, aminoglycosides, lincosamides, and tetracyclines all inhibit protein synthesis.

Use the acronym“MALT”and think of malt powder that is sometimes found in“protein”shakes.

This will help you rememberMacrolides,Aminoglycosides,Lincosamides, andTetracyclines(MALT)inhibit protein synthesis.

Inhibition Cell Wall Synthesis

Lastly, through process of elimination the final 4 antibiotic classes inhibit cell wall synthesis: cephalosporins, penicillins, carbapenems, and glycopeptides.

Aminoglycosides= Inhibit protein synthesis“MALT”

Cephalosporins= Inhibit cell wall synthesis

Tetracyclines= Inhibit protein synthesis“MALT”

Penicillins= Inhibit cell wall synthesis

SulFOnamides= InhibitFOlate synthesis =“FO”

FluoroQUINolones= Inhibit DNA replication =QUINtuplets

Macrolides= Inhibit protein synthesis“MALT”

Carbapenems= Inhibit cell wall synthesis

Lincosamides= Inhibit protein synthesis“MALT”

Glycopeptides= Inhibit cell wall synthesis

Image: You can use the above tricks to remember the mechanism of action for each antibiotic class.

Hopefully this was a good overview of the main antibiotic classes, as well as useful mnemonics and tricks to remember the drug names, gram coverage, and mechanism of action of each class!

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EZmed

Overview of Antibiotics - Infections

By

Brian J.Werth

, PharmD, University of Washington School of Pharmacy

Last full review/revision Jun 2022| Content last modified Sep 2022

CLICK HERE FOR THE PROFESSIONAL VERSION

Topic Resources

Antibiotics are drugs used to treat bacterial infections Bacterial Infections Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms. They are among the earliest known life forms on earth. There are thousands of different kinds of bacteria, and they live in every conceivable... read more . They are not effective against viral infections and most other infections. Antibiotics either kill bacteria or stop them from reproducing, allowing the body's natural defenses Defenses Against Infection If the body did not have defenses against infection, it would quickly be overwhelmed by microorganisms. These defenses require a living, properly functioning body.A dead body begins to decay... read more to eliminate them.

• Doctors try to use antibiotics for specific bacterial infections, but they sometimes start antibiotics that can treat many different bacteria while waiting for results of tests that identify the specific bacteria Diagnosis of Infectious Disease Infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Doctors suspect an infection based on the person's symptoms, physical examination results,... read more .

• Taking the antibiotics as prescribed is important, and antibiotics should be taken in the dose, frequency, and number of days that are most effective to treat a specific infection.

• Bacteria can develop resistance to the effects of antibiotics, especially if they are not taken as directed.

• Antibiotics can have side effects, such as upset stomach, diarrhea, and, in women, vaginal yeast infections.

• Some people are allergic to certain antibiotics.

Antibiotics are grouped into classes based on their chemical structure. However, antibiotics within each class often affect the body differently and may be effective against different bacteria.

Classes of antibiotics include the following:

• Aminoglycosides Aminoglycosides Aminoglycosides are a class of antibiotics used to treat serious bacterial infections, such as those caused by gram-negative bacteria (especiallyPseudomonas aeruginosa). Aminoglycosides... read more

• Carbapenems Carbapenems Carbapenems are a subclass of antibiotics called beta-lactam antibiotics (antibiotics that have a chemical structure called a beta-lactam ring). Beta-lactam antibiotics also include cephalosporins... read more

• Cephalosporins Cephalosporins Cephalosporins are a subclass of antibiotics called beta-lactam antibiotics (antibiotics that have a chemical structure called a beta-lactam ring).Beta-lactam antibiotics also include carbapenems... read more

• Fluoroquinolones Fluoroquinolones Fluoroquinolones are a class of broad-spectrum antibiotics that are used to treat a variety of infections. Fluoroquinolones include the following: Ciprofloxacin Delafloxacin Gemifloxacin read more

• Glycopeptides and lipoglycopeptides Glycopeptides and Lipoglycopeptides Glycopeptides and lipoglycopeptides are antibiotics used to treat complicated and/or serious infections caused by gram-positive bacteria. Glycopeptides and lipoglycopeptides include the following... read more (such as vancomycin)

• Macrolides Macrolides Macrolides are a class of antibiotics that are often used to treat infections in people who are allergic to penicillins. Macrolides include the following: Azithromycin Clarithromycin Erythromycin read more (such as erythromycin and azithromycin)

• Monobactams (aztreonam Aztreonam Aztreonam is the only antibiotic in an antibiotic class called monobactams, which are a subclass of beta-lactam antibiotics (antibiotics that have a chemical structure called a beta-lactam ring)... read more )

• Oxazolidinones Oxazolidinones: Linezolid and Tedizolid Oxazolidinones are a class of antibiotics used to treat serious infections, often after other antibiotics have been ineffective. Oxazolidinones include the following: Linezolid Tedizolid Oxazolidinones... read more (such as linezolid and tedizolid)

• Penicillins Penicillins Penicillins are a subclass of antibiotics called beta-lactam antibiotics (antibiotics that have a chemical structure called a beta-lactam ring). Carbapenems, cephalosporins, and monobactams... read more

• Polypeptides Polypeptides Polypeptides are a class of antibiotics used to treat several types of infections. Polypeptides include the following: Bacitracin Colistin Polymyxin B Most bacteria have an outer covering (cell... read more

• Rifamycins Rifamycins Rifamycins are antibiotics that work by suppressing the bacteria's production of genetic material.As a result, the bacteria die. Rifamycins include the following: Rifabutin Rifampin (rifampicin)... read more

• Sulfonamides Sulfonamides Sulfonamides are a class of antibiotics that are effective against many and . Some sulfonamides are applied directly to the skin (topically) to treat burns and skin, vaginal, and eye infections... read more

• Streptogramins (such as quinupristin and dalfopristin Quinupristin and Dalfopristin Quinupristin and dalfopristin belong to a class of antibiotics called streptogramins. These drugs are given together as a combination (quinupristin/dalfopristin). They are used to treat serious... read more )

• Tetracyclines Tetracyclines Tetracyclines are a group of antibiotics used to treat many different bacterial infections. Tetracyclines include the following: Doxycycline Eravacycline Minocycline read more

Carbapenems, cephalosporins, monobactams, and penicillins are subclasses of beta-lactam antibiotics, a class of antibiotic characterized by a chemical structure called a beta-lactam ring.

Other antibiotics that do not fit into the classes listed above include chloramphenicol Chloramphenicol The antibiotic chloramphenicol is used mainly to treat serious infections due to the few bacteria that are resistant to other antibiotics but are still susceptible to chloramphenicol. Its use... read more , clindamycin Clindamycin Clindamycin belongs to a class of antibiotics called lincosamides. Clindamycin is used to treat serious bacterial infections, including some infections that are resistant to other antibiotics... read more , daptomycin Daptomycin The antibiotic daptomycin is used to treat many serious bacterial infections, such as those caused by gram-positive bacteria, including those that are resistant to many other antibiotics. Daptomycin... read more , fosfomycin Fosfomycin Fosfomycin is an antibiotic that has a unique chemical structure. It is used mainly to treat bladder infections caused by Escherichia coli (E. coli) orEnterococcus faecalis.It... read more , lefamulin Lefamulin Lefamulin is an antibiotic that works by interfering with the bacteria's production of the proteins it needs to grow and multiply. Lefamulin is used to treat community-acquired pneumonia that... read more , metronidazole Metronidazole and Tinidazole Metronidazole is an antibiotic used to treat pelvic, abdominal, soft-tissue, gum, and tooth infections and abscesses in the lungs or brain. It is also the preferred drug for certain protozoal... read more , mupirocin Mupirocin Mupirocin is an antibiotic that is used to treat impetigo and some other bacterial skin infections and to eliminate staphylococci from the nose. Mupirocin works by interfering with the bacteria's... read more , nitrofurantoin Nitrofurantoin Nitrofurantoin is an antibiotic that is used only to prevent or treat uncomplicated bladder infections. How nitrofurantoin works is not fully understood, but it disrupts several bacterial processes... read more , and tigecycline Tigecycline Tigecycline is the only antibiotic in an antibiotic class called glycylcyclines, which are related to tetracyclines.Tigecycline works by preventing bacteria from producing proteins they need... read more .

Each antibiotic is effective only against certain types of bacteria. In selecting an antibiotic to treat a person with an infection, doctors evaluate which bacteria are likely to be the cause. For example, some infections are caused only by certain types of bacteria. Sometimes one antibiotic is predictably effective against all of the bacteria that are most likely to be causing an infection and so further testing may not be needed.

If infections may be caused by many different types of bacteria or by bacteria that are not predictably susceptible to antibiotics, a laboratory is asked to identify the infecting bacteria Diagnosis of Infectious Disease Infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Doctors suspect an infection based on the person's symptoms, physical examination results,... read more from samples of blood, urine, or tissue taken from the person ( see Diagnosis of Infectious Disease Diagnosis of Infectious Disease Infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.Doctors suspect an infection based on the person's symptoms, physical examination results,... read more ). The infecting bacteria are then tested for susceptibility to a variety of antibiotics. Results of these tests usually take a day or two and thus cannot guide the initial choice of antibiotic if the infection needs to be treated immediately. In such cases, doctors typically start treatment with an antibiotic that is effective against the bacteria most likely to be causing the infection. When test results are back, doctors change the antibiotic if needed.

Antibiotics that are effective in the laboratory do not necessarily work in an infected person. The effectiveness of the treatment depends on

• How well the drug is absorbed into the bloodstream (for drugs taken by mouth Oral route Drugs are introduced into the body by several routes. They may be Taken by mouth (orally) Given by injection into a vein (intravenously, IV), into a muscle (intramuscularly, IM), into the space... read more )

• How much of the drug reaches the sites of infection in the body (see Drug Distribution Drug Distribution Drug distribution refers to the movement of a drug to and from the blood and various tissues of the body (for example, fat, muscle, and brain tissue) and the relative proportions of drug in... read more )

• How quickly the body eliminates the drug (see Drug Elimination Drug Elimination Drug elimination is the removal of drugs from the body. (See also Introduction to Administration and Kinetics of Drugs.) All drugs are eventually eliminated from the body. They may be eliminated... read more )

These factors may vary from person to person, depending on other drugs being taken, other disorders present, and the person’s age.

In selecting an antibiotic, doctors also consider the following:

• The nature and seriousness of the infection

• The status of the person's immune system (how well it can help the drug fight the infection)

• The drug’s possible side effects

• The possibility of allergies or other serious reactions to the drug

• The cost of the drug

Doctors also consider how hard it may be for people to take antibiotics for the entire time prescribed and complete the full course of treatment.People may find it more difficult to complete treatment if the drug must be taken very often or only at specific times (such as before meals, during meals, or after meals).

Combinations of antibiotics may be needed to treat the following:

• Severe infections, particularly during the first days when the bacteria's susceptibility to antibiotics is not known

• Certain infections caused by bacteria that rapidly develop resistance to a single antibiotic

• Infections caused by more than one type of bacteria if each type is susceptible to a different antibiotic

Bacteria, like all living organisms, change over time in response to environmental challenges. Because of the widespread use and misuse of antibiotics (when antibiotics are not taken as prescribed), bacteria are constantly exposed to these drugs. Although many bacteria die when exposed to antibiotics, if antibiotics are not taken appropriately, some bacteria survive and develop resistance Antibiotic resistance Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms.They are among the earliest known life forms on earth. There are thousands of different kinds of bacteria, and they live in every conceivable... read more to the drugs’ effects. For example, 50 years ago,Staphylococcus aureus(a common cause of skin infections) was very sensitive to penicillin. But over time, strains of this bacteria developed an enzyme able to break down penicillin, making the drug ineffective. Researchers responded by developing a form of penicillin that the enzyme could not break down, but after a few years, the bacteria adapted and became resistant to this modified penicillin. Other bacteria have also developed resistance to antibiotics.

Medical research continues to develop drugs to combat bacteria. But people can help prevent the development of resistance in bacteria by

• Understanding that antibiotics are used to treat bacteria,notviral infections (such as the common cold or the flu), and that doctors do not prescribe antibiotics for these viral infections

• Taking antibiotics exactly as directed, including the correct dose, numbers of times per day, and number of days (it is important to take antibiotics for the full number of days prescribed, even if a person is feeling better)

Did You Know.

For severe bacterial infections or for people who cannot keep down food or liquids, antibiotics are usually first given by injection Oral route Drugs are introduced into the body by several routes. They may be Taken by mouth (orally) Given by injection into a vein (intravenously, IV), into a muscle (intramuscularly, IM), into the space... read more (usually into a vein but sometimes into a muscle). When the infection is controlled, antibiotics can then be taken by mouth Oral route Drugs are introduced into the body by several routes. They may be Taken by mouth (orally) Given by injection into a vein (intravenously, IV), into a muscle (intramuscularly, IM), into the space... read more .

For less severe infections, antibiotics can often be taken by mouth from the start.

Antibiotics need to be taken until the infecting bacteria are eliminated from the body, which may be days after the symptoms disappear. Stopping treatment too soon can result in a return of the infection.

A doctor, nurse, or pharmacist can explain how the prescribed antibiotic should be taken and what side effects it may have. Some antibiotics must be taken on an empty stomach. Others should be taken with food. Metronidazole Metronidazole and Tinidazole Metronidazole is an antibiotic used to treat pelvic, abdominal, soft-tissue, gum, and tooth infections and abscesses in the lungs or brain. It is also the preferred drug for certain protozoal... read more , a common antibiotic, causes an unpleasant reaction with alcohol. Also, some antibiotics can interact with other drugs that people may be taking, possibly reducing the effectiveness or increasing the side effects of the antibiotic or the other drugs. Some antibiotics make the skin sensitive to sunlight Chemical photosensitivity Photosensitivity, sometimes referred to as a sun allergy, is an immune system reaction that is triggered by sunlight. Sunlight can trigger immune system reactions. People develop itchy eruptions... read more .

Antibiotics are sometimes used to prevent infections (called prophylaxis). For example, prophylactic antibiotics may be given to

• People who have been exposed to a person with meningitis to prevent meningitis from developing

• Some people with abnormal or artificial heart valves before dental and surgical procedures to prevent bacteria from infecting the damaged or artificial valves (such procedures can allow bacteria to enter the body)

• People undergoing surgery that has a high risk of introducing an infection (such as major orthopedic or intestinal surgery)

To avoid the development of antibiotic resistance Antibiotic resistance Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms. They are among the earliest known life forms on earth. There are thousands of different kinds of bacteria, and they live in every conceivable... read more in bacteria and side effects in people, doctors usually give preventive antibiotics for only a short time.

Antibiotics may also be given to people who have a weakened immune system Infections in People With Impaired Defenses Many disorders, drugs, and other treatments can cause a breakdown in the body’s natural defenses. Such a breakdown can lead to infections, which can even be caused by microorganisms that normally... read more , such as people with leukemia, people taking chemotherapy for cancer, or people with AIDS, because such people are particularly susceptible to serious infections. They may need to take the antibiotics for a long time.

Generally, antibiotics are used during pregnancy only when the benefits of treatment outweigh the risks. Some antibiotics are safer than others. Penicillins Penicillins Penicillins are a subclass of antibiotics called beta-lactam antibiotics (antibiotics that have a chemical structure called a beta-lactam ring). Carbapenems, cephalosporins, and monobactams... read more , cephalosporins Cephalosporins Cephalosporins are a subclass of antibiotics called beta-lactam antibiotics (antibiotics that have a chemical structure called a beta-lactam ring).Beta-lactam antibiotics also include carbapenems... read more , and erythromycin Macrolides Macrolides are a class of antibiotics that are often used to treat infections in people who are allergic to penicillins. Macrolides include the following: Azithromycin Clarithromycin Erythromycin read more are among the safest antibiotics to use during pregnancy. Tetracyclines Tetracyclines Tetracyclines are a group of antibiotics used to treat many different bacterial infections. Tetracyclines include the following: Doxycycline Eravacycline Minocycline read more are not used during pregnancy. (See also Drug Use During Pregnancy Drug Use During Pregnancy More than 50% of pregnant women take prescription or nonprescription (over-the-counter) drugs or use social drugs (such as tobacco and alcohol) or illicit drugs at some time during pregnancy... read more .)

Most antibiotics pass into breast milk in large enough amounts to affect a breastfed baby and sometimes cannot be used in women who are breastfeeding.Sometimes a decision to stop breastfeeding or to not use the drug must be made.

If an infection develops during pregnancy or while breastfeeding, women should talk to their doctor about the benefits and risks of treatment. (See also Drug Use During Breastfeeding Drug Use During Breastfeeding When mothers who are breastfeeding have to take a drug, they wonder whether they should stop breastfeeding. The answer depends on the following: How much of the drug passes into the milk Whether... read more .)

Usually, antibiotics taken outside the hospital are given by mouth. However, some infections—such as many of those involving bone (osteomyelitis Osteomyelitis Osteomyelitis is a bone infection usually caused by bacteria, mycobacteria, or fungi. Bacteria, mycobacteria, or fungi can infect bones by spreading through the bloodstream or, more often, by... read more ) or the heart (endocarditis Infective Endocarditis Infective endocarditis is an infection of the lining of the heart (endocardium) and usually also of the heart valves.Infective endocarditis occurs when bacteria enter the bloodstream and travel... read more )—may require antibiotics to be given by vein (intravenously) for a long time, often 4 to 6 weeks. If people have no other conditions that need treatment in the hospital and are feeling relatively well, intravenous (IV) antibiotics may be given at home.

When antibiotics have to be given a long time, the short IV catheters that are inserted into a small vein in the arm or hand (such as those used in most routine hospital procedures) may not be desirable. These catheters last only up to 3 days. Instead, a special type of IV catheter is used. It may be inserted either

• Directly into a large central vein, usually in the neck or chest (called a central catheter)

• Into a small vein in the arm and threaded into a large central vein (called a peripherally inserted central catheter, or a PICC)

Some devices for giving antibiotics IV are simple enough that people and their family members can learn to operate them on their own.In other cases, a visiting nurse must come to the home to give each dose. In either situation, people are carefully supervised to make sure the antibiotic is being given correctly and to watch for possible complications and side effects.

If antibiotics are given at home through an IV catheter, the risk of developing an infection at the site where the catheter is inserted and in the bloodstream is increased. The following may indicate a catheter-related infection:

• Pain, redness, and pus at the catheter insertion site

• Chills and fever (even without problems at the insertion site)

Common side effects of antibiotics include

• Upset stomach

• Diarrhea Gastroenteritis as a Side Effect of Drugs

• In women, vaginal yeast infections Vaginal Yeast Infection (Candidiasis) The vagina is infected by a yeast calledCandida, usuallyCandida albicans, resulting in a yeast infection called candidiasis.Being pregnant or having diabetes or a weakened immune... read more

Some side effects are more severe and, depending on the antibiotic, may impair the function of the kidneys, liver, bone marrow, or other organs. Blood tests are sometimes done to determine whether these organs have been affected.

Colitisan inflammation of the large intestine (colon), develops in some people who take antibiotics, especially cephalosporins, clindamycin, fluoroquinolones, or penicillins. This type of colitis, called Clostridioides difficile–induced colitisClostridioides (formerly Clostridium) difficile-Induced ColitisClostridioides difficile(It's hard)–induced colitis is an inflammation of the large intestine (colon) that results in diarrhea. The inflammation is caused by toxin produced... read more , results from toxins produced by the bacteriaClostridioides difficile(C. diff). These bacteria are resistant to many antibiotics and grow in the intestines unchecked when other normal bacteria in the intestine are killed by the antibiotics. Clostridioides difficile–induced colitis can be difficult to treat and can be life threatening, especially in older people.

Antibiotics can also cause allergic reactions Allergies to Drugs People sometimes mistake many adverse drug reactions for allergies. For example, people who experience stomach discomfort after taking aspirin (a common adverse reaction) often say they are... read more . Mild allergic reactions may consist of an itchy rash or slight wheezing. Severe allergic reactions (anaphylaxis Anaphylactic Reactions Anaphylactic reactions are sudden, widespread, potentially severe and life-threatening allergic reactions. Anaphylactic reactions often begin with a feeling of uneasiness, followed by tingling... read more ) can be life threatening and usually include swelling of the throat, inability to breathe, and low blood pressure.

It is important for people to tell health care practitioners if they are allergic to a particular antibiotic and to describe their past reaction when treated with that antibiotic.Many people have side effects when taking an antibiotic, but these effects may not be allergy-related (see Allergies to Drugs Allergies to Drugs People sometimes mistake many adverse drug reactions for allergies. For example, people who experience stomach discomfort after taking aspirin (a common adverse reaction) often say they are... read more ). The distinction is important because people who are allergic to an antibiotic should not be given that drug or an antibiotic closely related to it. That is because allergic reactions may be life threatening. However, people who have experienced only minor side effects can usually take related drugs or even continue taking the same drug. Health care practitioners can determine the significance of any unpleasant reaction people have to an antibiotic.

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4 Data Analysis Techniques in Microsoft Excel

October 5, 2017TechnologiesColumn

If you have to dive into the ocean of numbers for work or study and look for confirmation of your hypotheses in them, these techniques of working in Microsoft Excel will definitely come in handy.How to apply them - we show with the help of GIFs.

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Yulia Perminova

Trainer of Softline Training Center since 2008.

1. PivotTables

A basic tool for working with a huge amount of unstructured data, from which you can quickly draw conclusions without fiddling with filtering and sorting manually. PivotTables can be created with a few steps and can be quickly customized depending on how you want to display the results.

A useful addition.You can also create PivotCharts based on PivotTables that will automatically update when they change. This is useful if, for example, you need to regularly generate reports on the same parameters.

How to work

The initial data can be anything: sales, shipments, deliveries, and so on.

1. Open the file with the table whose data you want to analyze.
2. Select a range of data to analyze.
3. Click Insert tab → Table → PivotTable (for macOS, on the Data tab in the Analyze group).
4. The Create PivotTable dialog box should appear.
5. Customize the display of data that you have in the table.

Before us is a table with unstructured data. We can organize them and customize the display of the data that we have in the table. We send the “Amount of orders” to “Values”, and “Sales”, “Sale date” - to “Lines”. According to different sellers for different years, the amounts were immediately calculated. If necessary, you can expand every year, quarter or month - we will get more detailed information for a specific period.

The set of options will depend on the number of columns. For example, we have five columns. They just need to be positioned correctly and choose what we want to show. Let's say the amount.

You can detail it, for example, by country. We transfer "Countries".

You can see the results by sellers. Change "Country" to "Sellers". For sellers, the results will be as follows.

2. 3D maps

This geo-referenced data visualization method allows you to analyze data and find patterns that have a regional origin.

A useful addition.Coordinates do not need to be written anywhere - it is enough just to correctly indicate the geographical name in the table.

How to work

1. Open the file with the table whose data you want to visualize. For example, with information on different cities and countries.
2. Prepare data for display on the map: "Home" → "Format as Table".
3. Select a range of data to analyze.
4. There is a 3D Map button on the Insert tab.

The points on the map are our cities. But we are simply not very interested in cities - it is interesting to see information tied to these cities. For example, amounts that can be displayed through the height of the column. Hovering the cursor over the column shows the amount.

The pie chart by years is also quite informative. The size of the circle is given by the sum.

3. Forecast sheet

Business processes often have seasonal patterns that must be taken into account when planning.The Forecast Sheet is the most accurate predictive tool in Excel that has ever been and is now. It can be used to plan the activities of commercial, financial, marketing and other services.

A useful addition.To calculate the forecast, you need data for earlier periods. Forecasting accuracy depends on the amount of data by period - better than at least a year. You require equal intervals between data points (for example, a month or an equal number of days).

How to work

1. Open a table with data for a period and corresponding indicators, for example, from a year.
2. Select two rows of data.
3. On the Data tab, in the group, click the Forecast Sheet button.
4. In the Create Forecast Sheet window, select a graph or bar chart to visually represent the forecast.
5. Select the end date for the forecast.

In the example below, we have data for 2011, 2012 and 2013. It is important to indicate not numbers, but time periods (that is, not March 5, 2013, but March 2013).

For the forecast for 2014, you need two sets of data: dates and their corresponding indicator values. Select both rows of data.

On the Data tab, in the Forecast group, click on the Forecast sheet. In the "Create Forecast Sheet" window that appears, select the forecast presentation format - a graph or a histogram. In the "End forecast" field, select the end date, and then click the "Create" button. The orange line is the forecast.

4. Quick Analysis

This functionality is perhaps the first step towards what can be called business analysis. It's nice that this functionality is implemented in the most user-friendly way: the desired result is achieved in just a few clicks. You don't have to count anything, you don't have to write down any formulas. It is enough to select the desired range and choose what result you want to get.

A useful addition.You can instantly create different types of charts or sparklines (micro graphs right in the cell).

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